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author | Franciszek Malinka <franciszek.malinka@gmail.com> | 2023-06-26 00:43:06 +0200 |
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committer | Franciszek Malinka <franciszek.malinka@gmail.com> | 2023-06-26 00:43:06 +0200 |
commit | 8aa2eafb03ab148d99b616e8c15c41612f7829ad (patch) | |
tree | 7e834d405d3ad22751325c94091282df93893258 | |
parent | 0109d6cb533bf8bc257566b7bb6d9d33a4a7b842 (diff) |
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-rw-r--r-- | semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/finite-fields.tex | 143 | ||||
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diff --git a/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/notatki.pdf b/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/notatki.pdf Binary files differindex b34dcad..9c9aec4 100644 --- a/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/notatki.pdf +++ b/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/notatki.pdf diff --git a/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/finite-fields.tex b/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/finite-fields.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4e623f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/finite-fields.tex @@ -0,0 +1,143 @@ +\documentclass[../notes.tex]{subfiles} +\begin{document} + Non-trivial finite fields can be only of $\Char = p$ prime. Also, we can + describe all of them very specifically. + + \begin{remark} + Let $K$ be a finite field $\Char = p > 0$, Then $K^{*}$ (the multiplicative + subgroup) is also finite and for $n = |K|$ we have $x^n = x$ for any $x\in + K^*$. + \end{remark} + + \begin{theorem} + Let $K$ be a finite field of $\Char = p$. Then + \begin{enumerate} + \item $|K| = p^n$ for some $n > 0$, + \item For all $n > 0$ there exists a field of order $p^n$ and it is unique up to + isomorphism. + \end{enumerate} + \end{theorem} + + \begin{theorem} + Let $K$ be a finite field of characteristics $p$. + \begin{enumerate} + \item Every irreducible polynomial $f\in K[X]$ divides the polynomial $X^n + -1$ for some $n$ not divisible by $p$. + \item Such $f$ has no multiple roots in any field $L\supseteq K$. + For $a\in L\supset K$, the following conditions are equivalent: + enumerate$a$ is algebraic over $K$, + \item $K[a] = K(a)$, + \item $[K(a):K] < \infty$. + \end{enumerate} + \end{theorem} + + We can very well describe every subfields of a finite field. + \begin{theorem} + \mbox{} + \begin{enumerate} + \item If $K\subseteq L$ is are finite fields, $|K| = p^m, |L| = p^n$, then + $m\mid n$. + \item Every field of size $p^n$ elements contains a unique subfield of + size $p^m$, where $m\mid n$. + \end{enumerate} + \end{theorem} + + Hence, we can name the finite fields with $F_{p^n}$ to be the very unique + subfield of order $p^n$ (as even in bigger fields this is the only subfield of + this size). + + \begin{definition} + Let $K$ be a field of $\Char = p > 0$. Then the function $\phi\colon K\to K$ + such that $\phi(a) = a^p$ is called \emph{Frobenius automorphism}. + \end{definition} + + It's easy to check that $\phi$ is an automorphism. This gives a funny property + of fields of prime characteristics: + + \begin{fact} + For any $a, b\in K$, where $\Char(K) = p > 0$, we have $(a + b)^p = a^p + + b^p$. + \end{fact} + + \begin{theorem} + \label{theorem:degree-finite} + Assume that $F_p\subseteq K$ is a finite field extension. Let $a\in K$ be a + primitive root of unity of degree $m$. Let $n > 0$ be the smallest number such + that $m\mid p^n - 1$. Then $\deg(a/F_p) = n$ and $n\mid \phi(m)$. + \end{theorem} + + \begin{proof} + Look at $\langle a\rangle = F_{p^n}$ for some $n$. Then $a^{p^n - 1} = 1$ + (so this is the smallest such $n$), + as $p^n -1 = |F_{p^n}^*|$, but $\ord(a) = m$, hence $m\mid p^{n}-1$. Hence + $\deg(a/F_p) = [F_{p^n}:F_p] = n$ (\color{red}{why??} we can see $\ge n$ by + looking on $\phi^{k}(a)$, how the other way around?). + + \color{red}{Why does $n\mid \phi(m)$?} + \end{proof} + + \subsection{Algebraic closure of $F_p$} + Algebraic closure of $F_p$ is also quite well understood. We know that + $F_{p^n}\subset F_{p^m}$ if and only if $n\mid m$. Hence, $F_{p^{n!}}\subset + F_{p^{m!}}$ for any $n < m$. + \begin{remark} + Let $F_\infty = \bigcup_{n=1}^\infty F_{p^{n!}}$. $F_\infty$ is + algebraically closed. + \end{remark} + + See that $F_{p^n}\subset F_\infty$ for any $n\bN$, from the construction. + So, this is the algebraic closure for every finite field. However, there are + many infinite fields contained in $F_\infty$. + + \begin{remark} + $F_\infty$ has at least $2^{\aleph_0}$ distinct subfields, every pair having a finite + intersection. Also, every automorphism of $F_\infty$ does not move any of + these. + \end{remark} + + \begin{proof} + Let $\bP = \{p_0, p_1,\ldots\}$ be the enumeration of all prime numbers. For + $\eta\colon \bN\to \{0, 1\}$, let $\rho(\eta, k) = p_0^{\eta(0)}p_1^{\eta(1)}\ldots + p_k^{\eta(k)}$ and $$F_\eta = \bigcup^\infty_{k=0} F_{p^{\rho(\eta, k)}}$$ + + Intuitively, $F_\eta$ is the union of fields of some power of $p$ given by + some branch of the following tree: + + \begin{center} + \begin{tikzpicture}[very thick,level/.style={sibling distance=60mm/#1}] + \node [vertex] (r){$1$} + child { + node [vertex] (a) {$1$} + child { + node [vertex] {$1$} + child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}} + child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}} + } + child { + node [vertex] {$p_1$} + child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}} + child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}} + } + } + child { + node [vertex] {$p_0$} + child { + node [vertex] {$1$} + child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}} + child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}} + } + child { + node [vertex] {$p_1$} + child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}} + child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}} + } + }; + \end{tikzpicture} + \end{center} + Product of the elements on the way from root through some branch yields the + sizes of the subfields of $F_\eta$. It's not hard to see now that the + remark is true for such subfields, and it's well known that there are + $2^{\aleph_0}$ such functions. + \end{proof} + +\end{document} diff --git a/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/galois-cont.tex b/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/galois-cont.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..119e31a --- /dev/null +++ b/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/galois-cont.tex @@ -0,0 +1,337 @@ +\documentclass[../notes.tex]{subfiles} +\begin{document} + \subsection{Galois extension and Artin's theorem} + So far we were focusing on the absolute Galois group $G(\hat{K}/K)$. In this + section we will move forward to the Galois correspondence theorem, which gives + a beautiful description of the algebraic extension $K\subset L$ through + properties of the Galois group $G(L/K)$. + + As before, we work with algebraic extension $K\subset L\subset \hat{K}$. + + \begin{definition} + The algebraic field extension $K\subset L$ is \emph{Galois} when $\forall + a\in L\setminus K$ $\exists f\in G(L/K)$ $f(a)\neq a$. + \end{definition} + \begin{definition} + Let $G<\Aut(L)$. Then $L^G\defeq \{a\in L\mid \forall f\in G$ $f(a) = a\} = + \bigcup_{f\in G}\Fix(f)$ is the \emph{fixed-point field of $G$}. + \end{definition} + + We get a nice equivalent definition for Galois extensions with the notion of + fixed-point field: + \begin{remark} + Extension $K\subset L$ is Galois $\Leftrightarrow$ $K = L^{G(L/K)}$. + \end{remark} + + \begin{example} + \mbox{} + \begin{enumerate} + \item Let $L = K(a)$ for algebraic $a/K$. Let $a= a_1,\ldots, a_k$ be the roots of + the minimal polynomial $W_a(X)$ in $L$ (so not every root!). However we know + that any $f\in G(L/K)$ is determined by $f(a)$, which can only be one of + $a_1,\ldots, a_k$, hence $\left|G(L/K)\right|\le k$. + \item Let $L\supset K$ be the splitting field of $W(X)\in K[X]$, i.e. $L = + K(a_1,\ldots,a_n)$, where $a_i$ are all roots of $W(X)$. Then every + $f\in G(L/K)$ is determined by $\restr{f}{\{a_1,\ldots,a_n\}}\in + \Sym(\{a_1,\ldots,a_n\})$. We get a very natural embedding: + \[ + \begin{matrix} + G(L/K) & \hookrightarrow & \Sym(\{a_1,\ldots, a_n\}) \\ + \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} && \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} \\ + f & \mapsto & \restr{f}{\{a_1,\ldots,a_n\}} + \end{matrix} + \] + \item Let $\zeta\in\bC$ be a primitive root of unity of degree $m$. Then + $[\bQ(\zeta)\colon \bQ] = \phi(m)$. Moreover, if $\{\zeta=\zeta_1, + \zeta_2,\ldots,\zeta_{\phi(m)}\}$ where all primitive roots of unity of + degree $m$, then $f\in G(\bQ(\zeta_1)/\bQ)$ is determined by + $f(\zeta_1) = \zeta_i$ for any $i=1,\ldots,\phi(m)$. This shows that not + every permutation of roots of a minimal polynomial extends to a valid + automorphism. Moreover, in this case we see that $f(\zeta_1) = + \zeta_1^{l_f}$ for some $0<l_f<m$ such that $\gcd(l_f,m) = 1$. Hence, + \[ + \begin{matrix} + G(\bQ(\zeta_1)/\bQ) & \hookrightarrow & \bZ^*_m \\ + \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} && \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} \\ + f & \mapsto & l_f + \end{matrix} + \] + \end{enumerate} + \end{example} + + \begin{theorem} + Let $K\subset L$ be an algebraic extension. Then $K\subset L$ is Galois + $\Leftrightarrow$ $K\subset L$ is separable and normal. + \end{theorem} + + Proof of this theorem gives great intuition on Galois extensions and utilizes + a very important observation, that polynomials of $K[X]$ are fixed by any + automorphism of $L$ over $K$. + \begin{proof} + $\Rightarrow$ Let $a\in L\setminus K$ and $a_1,\ldots,a_k\in L$ be pairwise + disjoint roots of + $W_a(X)$ that reside in $L$. Look at $V(X) = + (X-a_1)\cdot\ldots\cdot(X-a_k)\in L[X]$, of course $V(X)\mid W_a(X)$ in + $L[X]$, but as any $f\in G(L/K)$ permutes $\{a_1,\ldots,a_k\}$ we get that + $f(V) = V$, hence $V(X)\in L^{G(L/K)[X} = K[X]$ as $K\subset L$ is Galois. + But $W_a$ is minimal, hence $V = W_a$, so all roots of $W_a$ are in $L$ and + every root is simple, so $L$ is normal and separable over $K$. + + $\Leftarrow$ Normal extension says that for a given minimal polynomial $W_a(X)$ of $a\in + L$ all roots of this polynomial are inside $L$. Combined with separability, + we get that $a$ can be moved to some other element by $f\in G(L/K)$ if $\deg + W_a > 1$, but if $\deg W_a = 1$ then $a\in K$, so it's clear that $K = + L^{G(L/K)}$. + \end{proof} + + \begin{corollary} + \label{corollary:galois-exts} + Let $K\subset L\subset M$ be field extensions. If $K\subset M$ is Galois + then $L\subset M$ is Galois. + \end{corollary} + + \begin{corollary} + In $Char K = 0$, let $L \supset K$ be a splitting field of some polynomial $f\in K[X]$. + Then $K\subset L$ is a Galois extension. + \end{corollary} + + \begin{proof} + Because $\Char K = 0$, the extension is separable. It's also easy to see + that $L$ is normal over $K$, hence it's Galois. + \end{proof} + + The following theorem is also extremely important for studying examples of + Galois extensions. It is a corollary from Abel's primitive element + theorem\ref{theorem:abel}. + \begin{theorem}[Artin's] + \label{theorem:artins} + Let $G<\Aut(L)$ be a finite subgroup. Then $L^G\subset L$ is Galois + extension with $G = G(L/L^G)$ and $[L\colon L^G] = \left|G\right|$. + \end{theorem} + + \begin{proof} + Now it shouldn't be very hard, try doing it yourself! + \end{proof} + + \begin{example} + Every finite group $G$ is isomorphic to some Galois group of some Galois + extension. By Cayley's theorem we may assume $G < \Sym(\{X_1,\ldots, + X_n\})$. Let $K$ be any field, let $L = K(X_1, \ldots, X_n)$ and $H = \{f\in + G(L/K)\mid \restr{f}{\{X_1,\ldots,X_n\}}\in G\}$, then $G\cong + G(L/L^H)$ by Artin's theorem. + \end{example} + + \begin{corollary} + Let $K\subset L$ be Galois extension. Then $[L\colon K] = + \left|G(L/K)\right|$. + \end{corollary} + + \subsection{Fundamental theorem of Galois theory} + Let $K\subset L$ be an algebraic extension. Let $\cL =\{L'\mid K\subseteq + L'\subseteq L\}$ be the family of intermediate fields. Let $\cG = \{H\mid + H<G(L/K)\}$ be the family of subgroups of the Galois group of $L$ over $K$. + We get a very natural maps from one family to another: + + \[ + \begin{matrix} + \Gamma\colon & \cL & \lhook\joinrel\longrightarrow & \cG & & + \Lambda\colon & \cG & \longrightarrow & \cL \\ + & \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} & & \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} & & + & \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} & & \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} & \\ + & L' &\overset{\Gamma}{\longmapsto}& G(L/L') & & & H &\overset{\Lambda}{\longmapsto}& L^H + \end{matrix} + \] + \[ + \begin{matrix} + \end{matrix} + \] + + It's obvious that $\Gamma$ is 1-1 and that $\Lambda$ is onto. Maybe it's an + isomorphism? + + \begin{theorem}[Fundamental theorem of Galois theory] + Let $K\subset L$ be a finite Galois extension. Then $\Gamma$ is a bijection + and $\Gamma^{-1} = \Lambda$. + \end{theorem} + + \begin{proof} + For any $L'\in\cL$, $L\overset{\Gamma}{\longmapsto} G(L/L') + \overset{\Lambda}{\longmapsto} L^{G(L/L')}$, but by corollary + \ref{corollary:galois-exts} $L'\subset L$ is also Galois, hence $L^{G(L/L')} + = L'$. So, $\Lambda\circ\Gamma =\id_\cL$. + + The other way, let $H\in\cG$, then + $H\overset{\Lambda}{\longmapsto}L^H\overset{\Gamma}{\longmapsto}G(L/L^H) = + H$, where the last equality follows from the Artin's theorem + \ref{theorem:artins}. Hence $\gamma\circ\Lambda = \id_\cG$. + \end{proof} + + We will look on example usages of the theorem a little bit later. Now we'll + show one more corollary, that gives a wonderful connection between normal + extensions and normal subgroups. First, we need this easy lemma: + + \begin{lemma} + \label{lemma:normal} + Let $K\subset L'\subset L$ such that $K\subset L$ is a normal finite + extension. Then $K\subset L'$ is normal $\Leftrightarrow$ $\forall + f\in G(L/K)$ $f[L'] = L'$. + \end{lemma} + + \begin{theorem} + Let $K\subset L$ be Galois (i.e. normal and separable). Then, for any + $H<G(L/K)$ we have that $H\triangleleft G(L/K) \Leftrightarrow K\subset L^H$ is + Galois and $G(L^H/K) \cong G(L/K)/H$. + \end{theorem} + + \begin{proof} + $L$ is a Galois extension of $K$, so it suffices to show that $K\subset L^H$ + normal (as it is separable). + + Every $f\in\Aut(L)$ induces an inner automorphism $\hat{f}$ of $\Aut(L)$ by + conjugation, i.e. $\hat{f}(g) = f\circ \phi\circ f^{-1}$. But, as $L$ is + normal, this is also an automorphism of $G(L/K)$. Hence, for any $H<G(L/K)$ + we have that $\hat{f}[H] = H^f$ and + \begin{align*} + L^H &= \bigcap_{g\in H}\Fix(g) \\ + & \Rightarrow f[L^H] = \bigcap_{g\in H^f}\Fix(g) = L^{H^f} + \end{align*} + + Hence, because $\Gamma\colon\cG\to\cL$ is a bijection, we have the following chain of equivalences: + \begin{align*} + H\triangleleft G(L/K) &\Leftrightarrow \forall f\in G(L/K) \; H^f = H + \\ + &\Leftrightarrow \forall f\in G(L/K) \; L^{H^f} = L^H \\ + &\Leftrightarrow \forall f\in G(L/K) \; f[L^H] = L^H \\ + &\overset{\ref{lemma:normal}}{\Leftrightarrow} K\subset L^H \text{ is + normal} + \end{align*} + + The fact that $\Gamma$ is a bijection is used in the second equivalence. + It's not necessary from the left to right implication, but it gives us the + implication in other direction. + + Lastly, when $H\triangleleft G(L/K)$, the $\phi\colon G(L/K)\to G(L^H/K)$ + with $\phi(f) = \restr{f}{L^H}$ is an epimorphism and $\ker{\phi} = G(L/L^H) + = H$ by Artin's theorem \ref{theorem:artins}. Hence: + + \begin{center} + \begin{tikzcd} + G(L/K) \arrow[r, "\phi"] \arrow[d, "j"] & G(L^H/K) \\ + G(L/K)/H \arrow[ur, dashed, "\cong"] & + \end{tikzcd} + \end{center} + \end{proof} + + \subsection{Fundamental theorem applied} + + We'll work in $\Char = 0$. + \begin{example} + Look at $W(X) = X^3 - 2\in \bQ$. It's roots are $\sqrt[3]{2}, + \zeta\sqrt[3]{2}$ and $\zeta^2\sqrt[3]{2}$, where $\zeta\in \bC$ is the + primitive root of unity of degree $3$. So, the splitting field of $W$ is + $\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta)$, which has degree $6$ over $\bQ$. By Abel's + theorem we know that there is $a\in\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta)$ such that + $\bQ(a) = \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta)$, moreover, it is a linear combination of + $\sqrt[3]{2}$ and $\zeta$. So, let's try $a = \sqrt[3]{2} + \zeta$ and see + if it works. + + From Artin's theorem \ref{theorem:artins} we know that $6 = [\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, + \zeta)\colon\bQ] = \left|G(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2},\zeta)/\bQ)\right|$ We know for + sure that $\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2} + \zeta)\subseteq \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta)$, so + it's sufficient to show that it's degree over $\bQ$ is also $6$, or in other + words, that it's Galois group is the same as $G(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2},\zeta)/\bQ)$. + So, if we find $6$ distinct automorphisms of $\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2} + \zeta)$ over $\bQ$ + then we're done (as there can't be more). + + Let $r, s\in G(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2},\zeta)/\bQ)$ such that: + \begin{equation*} + \begin{split} + \begin{cases} + r\colon \sqrt[3]{2}&\longmapsto \zeta\sqrt[3]{2} \\ + r\colon \zeta&\longmapsto \zeta + \end{cases} + \end{split} + \quad\quad\quad + \begin{split} + \begin{cases} + s\colon \sqrt[3]{2} &\longmapsto \sqrt[3]{2} \\ + s\colon \zeta &\longmapsto \zeta^2 + \end{cases} + \end{split} + \end{equation*} + + It's clear that $r$ and $s$ are correctly determined by this maps. Also, see + that any automorphism has to map $\sqrt[3]{2}$ to some other root of $X^3 - + 2$ and can map $\zeta$ only to itself or $\zeta^2$ (which are the roots of + irreducible polynomial $X^2 + X + 1$). Moreover, we get $6$ different + automorphisms from $r$ and $s$, namely $\id, r, r^2, s, rs, r^2s$. So, the + Galois group $G(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta)/\bQ)$ is generated by $r, s$. We + need to check that $\sqrt[3]{2} + \zeta$ goes to distinct elements through + every of these automorphisms which is quite easy to check. + \end{example} + + \begin{example} + Let's find all intermediate fields of $\bQ\subset \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, + \zeta)$. We already know that $\Gal(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2},\zeta)/\bQ)\cong D_3$, + i.e. the dihedral group of triangle. It has four subgroups, namely $\{\id, r, + r^2\}$, $\{\id, s\}$, $\{\id, rs\}$ and $\{\id, r^2s\}$. So, we have four + intermediate fields corresponding two these subgroups. + + Now we need to find the intermediate fields that correspond to the subgroups + of the Galois group. In this case, I like to think of roots of the $X^3-2$ + as the vertices of a triangle and each automorphism is some permutation of + the vertices (i.e. some symmetry of the triangle). + + \begin{center} + \begin{tikzcd} + & \sqrt[3]{2} &\\ + & & \\ + \zeta\sqrt[3]{2} \arrow[dash, uur] & & \zeta^2\sqrt[3]{2} \arrow[dash, + ll] \arrow[dash, uul] + \end{tikzcd} + \end{center} + + The intuition to finding the intermediate fields is given by the fundamental + theorem. For every subgroup of the Galois group look for some elements that + are fixed by this group (or by the automorphism that generates this group) + and check if this is the correct element. In our case, it's easy to find all + of them thanks to the triangle. + + \begin{center} + \begin{tikzcd} + & & \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta) & \\ + & & & \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}) \arrow[ul, dash] \\ + \bQ(\zeta) \arrow[uurr, dash] & \bQ(\zeta\sqrt[3]{2}) \arrow[uur, + dash] & + \bQ(\zeta^2\sqrt[3]{2}) \arrow[uu, dash] & \\ + & & \bQ \arrow[ull, dash, "2"]\arrow[u, dash, "2"] \arrow[ul, + dash, "2"'] \arrow[uur, dash, "3"'] &\\ + \end{tikzcd} + \end{center} + \end{example} + + \newcommand{\bQQ}{\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \sqrt{3})} + \begin{example} + Let's find all intermediate fields between $\bQ$ and $\bQQ$. In this case, + it's not a splitting field of any polynomial over $\bQ$ so it's not normal. + A friend of mine told me a nice metaphor, that sometimes it's nice to go up + to the skies and get a bird's eye view to a broader picture, + as it allows to understand the details better. + In this case, it's + better to find a splitting field of some polynomial that contains $\bQQ$, + because then we will be able to use the fundamental theorem. + + In our case a natural candidate is the splitting field of the polynomial + $(X^3-2)(X^2-3)$, which is $\bQQ(\zeta) = \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \sqrt{3}, + \zeta)$. What is the Galois group of this? This is a group of size $12$ + thanks to Artin's theorem, and we see that the only possibilities for the + automorphisms is to move the roots of respective minimal polynomials to + other roots. In our case, we have at the automorphisms that move + $\sqrt[3]{2}$ and $\zeta$, but fix $\sqrt{3}$ and the analogous ones that + map $\sqrt{3}$ to $-\sqrt{3}$ and we get $12$ cases so it must be it! It's + clear that $G(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \sqrt{3}, \zeta)/\bQ) = D_3\times \bZ_2$. + + There's a lot more subgroups of this group which I'm not going to point out, + try to do it as an exercise and find the respective intermediate fields. + \end{example} +\end{document} |