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authorFranciszek Malinka <franciszek.malinka@gmail.com>2023-06-26 00:43:06 +0200
committerFranciszek Malinka <franciszek.malinka@gmail.com>2023-06-26 00:43:06 +0200
commit8aa2eafb03ab148d99b616e8c15c41612f7829ad (patch)
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parent0109d6cb533bf8bc257566b7bb6d9d33a4a7b842 (diff)
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-rw-r--r--semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/finite-fields.tex143
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diff --git a/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/notatki.pdf b/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/notatki.pdf
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diff --git a/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/finite-fields.tex b/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/finite-fields.tex
new file mode 100644
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+\documentclass[../notes.tex]{subfiles}
+\begin{document}
+ Non-trivial finite fields can be only of $\Char = p$ prime. Also, we can
+ describe all of them very specifically.
+
+ \begin{remark}
+ Let $K$ be a finite field $\Char = p > 0$, Then $K^{*}$ (the multiplicative
+ subgroup) is also finite and for $n = |K|$ we have $x^n = x$ for any $x\in
+ K^*$.
+ \end{remark}
+
+ \begin{theorem}
+ Let $K$ be a finite field of $\Char = p$. Then
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item $|K| = p^n$ for some $n > 0$,
+ \item For all $n > 0$ there exists a field of order $p^n$ and it is unique up to
+ isomorphism.
+ \end{enumerate}
+ \end{theorem}
+
+ \begin{theorem}
+ Let $K$ be a finite field of characteristics $p$.
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item Every irreducible polynomial $f\in K[X]$ divides the polynomial $X^n
+ -1$ for some $n$ not divisible by $p$.
+ \item Such $f$ has no multiple roots in any field $L\supseteq K$.
+ For $a\in L\supset K$, the following conditions are equivalent:
+ enumerate$a$ is algebraic over $K$,
+ \item $K[a] = K(a)$,
+ \item $[K(a):K] < \infty$.
+ \end{enumerate}
+ \end{theorem}
+
+ We can very well describe every subfields of a finite field.
+ \begin{theorem}
+ \mbox{}
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item If $K\subseteq L$ is are finite fields, $|K| = p^m, |L| = p^n$, then
+ $m\mid n$.
+ \item Every field of size $p^n$ elements contains a unique subfield of
+ size $p^m$, where $m\mid n$.
+ \end{enumerate}
+ \end{theorem}
+
+ Hence, we can name the finite fields with $F_{p^n}$ to be the very unique
+ subfield of order $p^n$ (as even in bigger fields this is the only subfield of
+ this size).
+
+ \begin{definition}
+ Let $K$ be a field of $\Char = p > 0$. Then the function $\phi\colon K\to K$
+ such that $\phi(a) = a^p$ is called \emph{Frobenius automorphism}.
+ \end{definition}
+
+ It's easy to check that $\phi$ is an automorphism. This gives a funny property
+ of fields of prime characteristics:
+
+ \begin{fact}
+ For any $a, b\in K$, where $\Char(K) = p > 0$, we have $(a + b)^p = a^p +
+ b^p$.
+ \end{fact}
+
+ \begin{theorem}
+ \label{theorem:degree-finite}
+ Assume that $F_p\subseteq K$ is a finite field extension. Let $a\in K$ be a
+ primitive root of unity of degree $m$. Let $n > 0$ be the smallest number such
+ that $m\mid p^n - 1$. Then $\deg(a/F_p) = n$ and $n\mid \phi(m)$.
+ \end{theorem}
+
+ \begin{proof}
+ Look at $\langle a\rangle = F_{p^n}$ for some $n$. Then $a^{p^n - 1} = 1$
+ (so this is the smallest such $n$),
+ as $p^n -1 = |F_{p^n}^*|$, but $\ord(a) = m$, hence $m\mid p^{n}-1$. Hence
+ $\deg(a/F_p) = [F_{p^n}:F_p] = n$ (\color{red}{why??} we can see $\ge n$ by
+ looking on $\phi^{k}(a)$, how the other way around?).
+
+ \color{red}{Why does $n\mid \phi(m)$?}
+ \end{proof}
+
+ \subsection{Algebraic closure of $F_p$}
+ Algebraic closure of $F_p$ is also quite well understood. We know that
+ $F_{p^n}\subset F_{p^m}$ if and only if $n\mid m$. Hence, $F_{p^{n!}}\subset
+ F_{p^{m!}}$ for any $n < m$.
+ \begin{remark}
+ Let $F_\infty = \bigcup_{n=1}^\infty F_{p^{n!}}$. $F_\infty$ is
+ algebraically closed.
+ \end{remark}
+
+ See that $F_{p^n}\subset F_\infty$ for any $n\bN$, from the construction.
+ So, this is the algebraic closure for every finite field. However, there are
+ many infinite fields contained in $F_\infty$.
+
+ \begin{remark}
+ $F_\infty$ has at least $2^{\aleph_0}$ distinct subfields, every pair having a finite
+ intersection. Also, every automorphism of $F_\infty$ does not move any of
+ these.
+ \end{remark}
+
+ \begin{proof}
+ Let $\bP = \{p_0, p_1,\ldots\}$ be the enumeration of all prime numbers. For
+ $\eta\colon \bN\to \{0, 1\}$, let $\rho(\eta, k) = p_0^{\eta(0)}p_1^{\eta(1)}\ldots
+ p_k^{\eta(k)}$ and $$F_\eta = \bigcup^\infty_{k=0} F_{p^{\rho(\eta, k)}}$$
+
+ Intuitively, $F_\eta$ is the union of fields of some power of $p$ given by
+ some branch of the following tree:
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \begin{tikzpicture}[very thick,level/.style={sibling distance=60mm/#1}]
+ \node [vertex] (r){$1$}
+ child {
+ node [vertex] (a) {$1$}
+ child {
+ node [vertex] {$1$}
+ child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}}
+ child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}}
+ }
+ child {
+ node [vertex] {$p_1$}
+ child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}}
+ child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}}
+ }
+ }
+ child {
+ node [vertex] {$p_0$}
+ child {
+ node [vertex] {$1$}
+ child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}}
+ child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}}
+ }
+ child {
+ node [vertex] {$p_1$}
+ child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}}
+ child {node [vertex] {$\ldots$}}
+ }
+ };
+ \end{tikzpicture}
+ \end{center}
+ Product of the elements on the way from root through some branch yields the
+ sizes of the subfields of $F_\eta$. It's not hard to see now that the
+ remark is true for such subfields, and it's well known that there are
+ $2^{\aleph_0}$ such functions.
+ \end{proof}
+
+\end{document}
diff --git a/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/galois-cont.tex b/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/galois-cont.tex
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..119e31a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/semestr2/algebra2r/notatki/sections/galois-cont.tex
@@ -0,0 +1,337 @@
+\documentclass[../notes.tex]{subfiles}
+\begin{document}
+ \subsection{Galois extension and Artin's theorem}
+ So far we were focusing on the absolute Galois group $G(\hat{K}/K)$. In this
+ section we will move forward to the Galois correspondence theorem, which gives
+ a beautiful description of the algebraic extension $K\subset L$ through
+ properties of the Galois group $G(L/K)$.
+
+ As before, we work with algebraic extension $K\subset L\subset \hat{K}$.
+
+ \begin{definition}
+ The algebraic field extension $K\subset L$ is \emph{Galois} when $\forall
+ a\in L\setminus K$ $\exists f\in G(L/K)$ $f(a)\neq a$.
+ \end{definition}
+ \begin{definition}
+ Let $G<\Aut(L)$. Then $L^G\defeq \{a\in L\mid \forall f\in G$ $f(a) = a\} =
+ \bigcup_{f\in G}\Fix(f)$ is the \emph{fixed-point field of $G$}.
+ \end{definition}
+
+ We get a nice equivalent definition for Galois extensions with the notion of
+ fixed-point field:
+ \begin{remark}
+ Extension $K\subset L$ is Galois $\Leftrightarrow$ $K = L^{G(L/K)}$.
+ \end{remark}
+
+ \begin{example}
+ \mbox{}
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item Let $L = K(a)$ for algebraic $a/K$. Let $a= a_1,\ldots, a_k$ be the roots of
+ the minimal polynomial $W_a(X)$ in $L$ (so not every root!). However we know
+ that any $f\in G(L/K)$ is determined by $f(a)$, which can only be one of
+ $a_1,\ldots, a_k$, hence $\left|G(L/K)\right|\le k$.
+ \item Let $L\supset K$ be the splitting field of $W(X)\in K[X]$, i.e. $L =
+ K(a_1,\ldots,a_n)$, where $a_i$ are all roots of $W(X)$. Then every
+ $f\in G(L/K)$ is determined by $\restr{f}{\{a_1,\ldots,a_n\}}\in
+ \Sym(\{a_1,\ldots,a_n\})$. We get a very natural embedding:
+ \[
+ \begin{matrix}
+ G(L/K) & \hookrightarrow & \Sym(\{a_1,\ldots, a_n\}) \\
+ \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} && \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} \\
+ f & \mapsto & \restr{f}{\{a_1,\ldots,a_n\}}
+ \end{matrix}
+ \]
+ \item Let $\zeta\in\bC$ be a primitive root of unity of degree $m$. Then
+ $[\bQ(\zeta)\colon \bQ] = \phi(m)$. Moreover, if $\{\zeta=\zeta_1,
+ \zeta_2,\ldots,\zeta_{\phi(m)}\}$ where all primitive roots of unity of
+ degree $m$, then $f\in G(\bQ(\zeta_1)/\bQ)$ is determined by
+ $f(\zeta_1) = \zeta_i$ for any $i=1,\ldots,\phi(m)$. This shows that not
+ every permutation of roots of a minimal polynomial extends to a valid
+ automorphism. Moreover, in this case we see that $f(\zeta_1) =
+ \zeta_1^{l_f}$ for some $0<l_f<m$ such that $\gcd(l_f,m) = 1$. Hence,
+ \[
+ \begin{matrix}
+ G(\bQ(\zeta_1)/\bQ) & \hookrightarrow & \bZ^*_m \\
+ \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} && \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} \\
+ f & \mapsto & l_f
+ \end{matrix}
+ \]
+ \end{enumerate}
+ \end{example}
+
+ \begin{theorem}
+ Let $K\subset L$ be an algebraic extension. Then $K\subset L$ is Galois
+ $\Leftrightarrow$ $K\subset L$ is separable and normal.
+ \end{theorem}
+
+ Proof of this theorem gives great intuition on Galois extensions and utilizes
+ a very important observation, that polynomials of $K[X]$ are fixed by any
+ automorphism of $L$ over $K$.
+ \begin{proof}
+ $\Rightarrow$ Let $a\in L\setminus K$ and $a_1,\ldots,a_k\in L$ be pairwise
+ disjoint roots of
+ $W_a(X)$ that reside in $L$. Look at $V(X) =
+ (X-a_1)\cdot\ldots\cdot(X-a_k)\in L[X]$, of course $V(X)\mid W_a(X)$ in
+ $L[X]$, but as any $f\in G(L/K)$ permutes $\{a_1,\ldots,a_k\}$ we get that
+ $f(V) = V$, hence $V(X)\in L^{G(L/K)[X} = K[X]$ as $K\subset L$ is Galois.
+ But $W_a$ is minimal, hence $V = W_a$, so all roots of $W_a$ are in $L$ and
+ every root is simple, so $L$ is normal and separable over $K$.
+
+ $\Leftarrow$ Normal extension says that for a given minimal polynomial $W_a(X)$ of $a\in
+ L$ all roots of this polynomial are inside $L$. Combined with separability,
+ we get that $a$ can be moved to some other element by $f\in G(L/K)$ if $\deg
+ W_a > 1$, but if $\deg W_a = 1$ then $a\in K$, so it's clear that $K =
+ L^{G(L/K)}$.
+ \end{proof}
+
+ \begin{corollary}
+ \label{corollary:galois-exts}
+ Let $K\subset L\subset M$ be field extensions. If $K\subset M$ is Galois
+ then $L\subset M$ is Galois.
+ \end{corollary}
+
+ \begin{corollary}
+ In $Char K = 0$, let $L \supset K$ be a splitting field of some polynomial $f\in K[X]$.
+ Then $K\subset L$ is a Galois extension.
+ \end{corollary}
+
+ \begin{proof}
+ Because $\Char K = 0$, the extension is separable. It's also easy to see
+ that $L$ is normal over $K$, hence it's Galois.
+ \end{proof}
+
+ The following theorem is also extremely important for studying examples of
+ Galois extensions. It is a corollary from Abel's primitive element
+ theorem\ref{theorem:abel}.
+ \begin{theorem}[Artin's]
+ \label{theorem:artins}
+ Let $G<\Aut(L)$ be a finite subgroup. Then $L^G\subset L$ is Galois
+ extension with $G = G(L/L^G)$ and $[L\colon L^G] = \left|G\right|$.
+ \end{theorem}
+
+ \begin{proof}
+ Now it shouldn't be very hard, try doing it yourself!
+ \end{proof}
+
+ \begin{example}
+ Every finite group $G$ is isomorphic to some Galois group of some Galois
+ extension. By Cayley's theorem we may assume $G < \Sym(\{X_1,\ldots,
+ X_n\})$. Let $K$ be any field, let $L = K(X_1, \ldots, X_n)$ and $H = \{f\in
+ G(L/K)\mid \restr{f}{\{X_1,\ldots,X_n\}}\in G\}$, then $G\cong
+ G(L/L^H)$ by Artin's theorem.
+ \end{example}
+
+ \begin{corollary}
+ Let $K\subset L$ be Galois extension. Then $[L\colon K] =
+ \left|G(L/K)\right|$.
+ \end{corollary}
+
+ \subsection{Fundamental theorem of Galois theory}
+ Let $K\subset L$ be an algebraic extension. Let $\cL =\{L'\mid K\subseteq
+ L'\subseteq L\}$ be the family of intermediate fields. Let $\cG = \{H\mid
+ H<G(L/K)\}$ be the family of subgroups of the Galois group of $L$ over $K$.
+ We get a very natural maps from one family to another:
+
+ \[
+ \begin{matrix}
+ \Gamma\colon & \cL & \lhook\joinrel\longrightarrow & \cG & &
+ \Lambda\colon & \cG & \longrightarrow & \cL \\
+ & \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} & & \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} & &
+ & \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} & & \rotatebox[origin=c]{90}{$\in$} & \\
+ & L' &\overset{\Gamma}{\longmapsto}& G(L/L') & & & H &\overset{\Lambda}{\longmapsto}& L^H
+ \end{matrix}
+ \]
+ \[
+ \begin{matrix}
+ \end{matrix}
+ \]
+
+ It's obvious that $\Gamma$ is 1-1 and that $\Lambda$ is onto. Maybe it's an
+ isomorphism?
+
+ \begin{theorem}[Fundamental theorem of Galois theory]
+ Let $K\subset L$ be a finite Galois extension. Then $\Gamma$ is a bijection
+ and $\Gamma^{-1} = \Lambda$.
+ \end{theorem}
+
+ \begin{proof}
+ For any $L'\in\cL$, $L\overset{\Gamma}{\longmapsto} G(L/L')
+ \overset{\Lambda}{\longmapsto} L^{G(L/L')}$, but by corollary
+ \ref{corollary:galois-exts} $L'\subset L$ is also Galois, hence $L^{G(L/L')}
+ = L'$. So, $\Lambda\circ\Gamma =\id_\cL$.
+
+ The other way, let $H\in\cG$, then
+ $H\overset{\Lambda}{\longmapsto}L^H\overset{\Gamma}{\longmapsto}G(L/L^H) =
+ H$, where the last equality follows from the Artin's theorem
+ \ref{theorem:artins}. Hence $\gamma\circ\Lambda = \id_\cG$.
+ \end{proof}
+
+ We will look on example usages of the theorem a little bit later. Now we'll
+ show one more corollary, that gives a wonderful connection between normal
+ extensions and normal subgroups. First, we need this easy lemma:
+
+ \begin{lemma}
+ \label{lemma:normal}
+ Let $K\subset L'\subset L$ such that $K\subset L$ is a normal finite
+ extension. Then $K\subset L'$ is normal $\Leftrightarrow$ $\forall
+ f\in G(L/K)$ $f[L'] = L'$.
+ \end{lemma}
+
+ \begin{theorem}
+ Let $K\subset L$ be Galois (i.e. normal and separable). Then, for any
+ $H<G(L/K)$ we have that $H\triangleleft G(L/K) \Leftrightarrow K\subset L^H$ is
+ Galois and $G(L^H/K) \cong G(L/K)/H$.
+ \end{theorem}
+
+ \begin{proof}
+ $L$ is a Galois extension of $K$, so it suffices to show that $K\subset L^H$
+ normal (as it is separable).
+
+ Every $f\in\Aut(L)$ induces an inner automorphism $\hat{f}$ of $\Aut(L)$ by
+ conjugation, i.e. $\hat{f}(g) = f\circ \phi\circ f^{-1}$. But, as $L$ is
+ normal, this is also an automorphism of $G(L/K)$. Hence, for any $H<G(L/K)$
+ we have that $\hat{f}[H] = H^f$ and
+ \begin{align*}
+ L^H &= \bigcap_{g\in H}\Fix(g) \\
+ & \Rightarrow f[L^H] = \bigcap_{g\in H^f}\Fix(g) = L^{H^f}
+ \end{align*}
+
+ Hence, because $\Gamma\colon\cG\to\cL$ is a bijection, we have the following chain of equivalences:
+ \begin{align*}
+ H\triangleleft G(L/K) &\Leftrightarrow \forall f\in G(L/K) \; H^f = H
+ \\
+ &\Leftrightarrow \forall f\in G(L/K) \; L^{H^f} = L^H \\
+ &\Leftrightarrow \forall f\in G(L/K) \; f[L^H] = L^H \\
+ &\overset{\ref{lemma:normal}}{\Leftrightarrow} K\subset L^H \text{ is
+ normal}
+ \end{align*}
+
+ The fact that $\Gamma$ is a bijection is used in the second equivalence.
+ It's not necessary from the left to right implication, but it gives us the
+ implication in other direction.
+
+ Lastly, when $H\triangleleft G(L/K)$, the $\phi\colon G(L/K)\to G(L^H/K)$
+ with $\phi(f) = \restr{f}{L^H}$ is an epimorphism and $\ker{\phi} = G(L/L^H)
+ = H$ by Artin's theorem \ref{theorem:artins}. Hence:
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \begin{tikzcd}
+ G(L/K) \arrow[r, "\phi"] \arrow[d, "j"] & G(L^H/K) \\
+ G(L/K)/H \arrow[ur, dashed, "\cong"] &
+ \end{tikzcd}
+ \end{center}
+ \end{proof}
+
+ \subsection{Fundamental theorem applied}
+
+ We'll work in $\Char = 0$.
+ \begin{example}
+ Look at $W(X) = X^3 - 2\in \bQ$. It's roots are $\sqrt[3]{2},
+ \zeta\sqrt[3]{2}$ and $\zeta^2\sqrt[3]{2}$, where $\zeta\in \bC$ is the
+ primitive root of unity of degree $3$. So, the splitting field of $W$ is
+ $\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta)$, which has degree $6$ over $\bQ$. By Abel's
+ theorem we know that there is $a\in\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta)$ such that
+ $\bQ(a) = \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta)$, moreover, it is a linear combination of
+ $\sqrt[3]{2}$ and $\zeta$. So, let's try $a = \sqrt[3]{2} + \zeta$ and see
+ if it works.
+
+ From Artin's theorem \ref{theorem:artins} we know that $6 = [\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2},
+ \zeta)\colon\bQ] = \left|G(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2},\zeta)/\bQ)\right|$ We know for
+ sure that $\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2} + \zeta)\subseteq \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta)$, so
+ it's sufficient to show that it's degree over $\bQ$ is also $6$, or in other
+ words, that it's Galois group is the same as $G(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2},\zeta)/\bQ)$.
+ So, if we find $6$ distinct automorphisms of $\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2} + \zeta)$ over $\bQ$
+ then we're done (as there can't be more).
+
+ Let $r, s\in G(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2},\zeta)/\bQ)$ such that:
+ \begin{equation*}
+ \begin{split}
+ \begin{cases}
+ r\colon \sqrt[3]{2}&\longmapsto \zeta\sqrt[3]{2} \\
+ r\colon \zeta&\longmapsto \zeta
+ \end{cases}
+ \end{split}
+ \quad\quad\quad
+ \begin{split}
+ \begin{cases}
+ s\colon \sqrt[3]{2} &\longmapsto \sqrt[3]{2} \\
+ s\colon \zeta &\longmapsto \zeta^2
+ \end{cases}
+ \end{split}
+ \end{equation*}
+
+ It's clear that $r$ and $s$ are correctly determined by this maps. Also, see
+ that any automorphism has to map $\sqrt[3]{2}$ to some other root of $X^3 -
+ 2$ and can map $\zeta$ only to itself or $\zeta^2$ (which are the roots of
+ irreducible polynomial $X^2 + X + 1$). Moreover, we get $6$ different
+ automorphisms from $r$ and $s$, namely $\id, r, r^2, s, rs, r^2s$. So, the
+ Galois group $G(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta)/\bQ)$ is generated by $r, s$. We
+ need to check that $\sqrt[3]{2} + \zeta$ goes to distinct elements through
+ every of these automorphisms which is quite easy to check.
+ \end{example}
+
+ \begin{example}
+ Let's find all intermediate fields of $\bQ\subset \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2},
+ \zeta)$. We already know that $\Gal(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2},\zeta)/\bQ)\cong D_3$,
+ i.e. the dihedral group of triangle. It has four subgroups, namely $\{\id, r,
+ r^2\}$, $\{\id, s\}$, $\{\id, rs\}$ and $\{\id, r^2s\}$. So, we have four
+ intermediate fields corresponding two these subgroups.
+
+ Now we need to find the intermediate fields that correspond to the subgroups
+ of the Galois group. In this case, I like to think of roots of the $X^3-2$
+ as the vertices of a triangle and each automorphism is some permutation of
+ the vertices (i.e. some symmetry of the triangle).
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \begin{tikzcd}
+ & \sqrt[3]{2} &\\
+ & & \\
+ \zeta\sqrt[3]{2} \arrow[dash, uur] & & \zeta^2\sqrt[3]{2} \arrow[dash,
+ ll] \arrow[dash, uul]
+ \end{tikzcd}
+ \end{center}
+
+ The intuition to finding the intermediate fields is given by the fundamental
+ theorem. For every subgroup of the Galois group look for some elements that
+ are fixed by this group (or by the automorphism that generates this group)
+ and check if this is the correct element. In our case, it's easy to find all
+ of them thanks to the triangle.
+
+ \begin{center}
+ \begin{tikzcd}
+ & & \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \zeta) & \\
+ & & & \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}) \arrow[ul, dash] \\
+ \bQ(\zeta) \arrow[uurr, dash] & \bQ(\zeta\sqrt[3]{2}) \arrow[uur,
+ dash] &
+ \bQ(\zeta^2\sqrt[3]{2}) \arrow[uu, dash] & \\
+ & & \bQ \arrow[ull, dash, "2"]\arrow[u, dash, "2"] \arrow[ul,
+ dash, "2"'] \arrow[uur, dash, "3"'] &\\
+ \end{tikzcd}
+ \end{center}
+ \end{example}
+
+ \newcommand{\bQQ}{\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \sqrt{3})}
+ \begin{example}
+ Let's find all intermediate fields between $\bQ$ and $\bQQ$. In this case,
+ it's not a splitting field of any polynomial over $\bQ$ so it's not normal.
+ A friend of mine told me a nice metaphor, that sometimes it's nice to go up
+ to the skies and get a bird's eye view to a broader picture,
+ as it allows to understand the details better.
+ In this case, it's
+ better to find a splitting field of some polynomial that contains $\bQQ$,
+ because then we will be able to use the fundamental theorem.
+
+ In our case a natural candidate is the splitting field of the polynomial
+ $(X^3-2)(X^2-3)$, which is $\bQQ(\zeta) = \bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \sqrt{3},
+ \zeta)$. What is the Galois group of this? This is a group of size $12$
+ thanks to Artin's theorem, and we see that the only possibilities for the
+ automorphisms is to move the roots of respective minimal polynomials to
+ other roots. In our case, we have at the automorphisms that move
+ $\sqrt[3]{2}$ and $\zeta$, but fix $\sqrt{3}$ and the analogous ones that
+ map $\sqrt{3}$ to $-\sqrt{3}$ and we get $12$ cases so it must be it! It's
+ clear that $G(\bQ(\sqrt[3]{2}, \sqrt{3}, \zeta)/\bQ) = D_3\times \bZ_2$.
+
+ There's a lot more subgroups of this group which I'm not going to point out,
+ try to do it as an exercise and find the respective intermediate fields.
+ \end{example}
+\end{document}